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Chinese grammar from A to Z

156 topics in 17 areas. Each one has a level, an explanation in English, example sentences with a translation, the trap that catches speakers of English in particular, and exercises of its own.

As a learning path, numberedAs a map: the tenses on a timeline

Pinyin, tones, basic sentences

20 topics · 1–3

Pinyin, the four tones, characters, shì and yǒu, bù and méi, questions with ma.

Sounds and characters7

The basic sentence13

Nouns, measure words, comparison

24 topics · 1–4

Numbers, measure words, this and that, de before a noun, bigger, smaller, the same.

Nouns, numbers and measure words10

The particle de and modification6

Comparison8

Verbs: time, aspect, modals

35 topics · 1–4

Time and place words, le, guo, zhe, can and must, result and direction complements.

Time and place9

Aspect: le, guo, zhe and zai10

Modal verbs7

Complements after the verb9

Sentence patterns and linking

41 topics · 1–5

Bǎ and bèi, two verbs in a row, also and again, because, although, if.

Sentence patterns11

Adverbs: also, again, already, only13

Linking clauses17

Politeness and set expressions

36 topics · 1–5

Final particles, polite language, fixed frames, four-character idioms, written style.

Sentence-final particles5

Politeness and social language4

Expressions (level 4)12

Expressions (level 5)10

Written Chinese5

Pinyin, tones, basic sentences

Sounds and characters

7 topics

Chinese is written in characters that do not say how they sound, and spoken in syllables whose pitch is part of the word. This area starts with pinyin, the Latin spelling of Mandarin that stands under every word on this site, then the tones and the few places where they change, and then the characters themselves: what one is, how characters make words, and how a Chinese sentence is punctuated. 妈(mā) and 马(mǎ) differ only in their tone — and that is the first thing to learn to hear.

1Reading pinyinInitials, finals, and the handful of letters that do not sound the way English reads them. 1The four tonesEvery syllable has a pitch shape, and a different shape makes a different word. 1Tone changesTwo third tones in a row, and the words yī and bù, change their tone before another syllable. 2Neutral tone and the r endingMany words end in an unstressed syllable, and some take an r sound on the end. 1What a character isOne character is one syllable with a meaning, built from a small set of recurring parts. 2Characters and wordsMost words have two characters, and nothing on the page shows where one word ends. 2Chinese punctuationEach mark fills a full square, lists have a comma of their own, and numbers are written in digits or characters.

The basic sentence

13 topics

A Chinese sentence has no endings to change: the verb is the same for every person and every time, and the order of the words carries the grammar. This area builds the basic sentence — subject, time, place, verb, object — and then the pieces every beginner needs at once: 是(shì) between two nouns, adjectives that need no “is”, 有(yǒu) for having and existing, the two negatives 不(bù) and 没(méi), and the ways of asking a question.

1Word orderSubject, verb, object as in English — but time and place come before the verb, and the verb never changes. 1A is B with shìShì links two nouns — “A is B” — but never a noun and an adjective. 1Adjectives as predicatesAn adjective works like a verb on its own; hěn usually stands before it, often meaning no more than “is”. 1Having and existing with yǒuYǒu means both “to have” and “there is”, and its negative is always méiyǒu. 1Negation with bù and méiBù negates what you do, want or are; méi negates what did not happen, and the verb yǒu. 2Don’t: bié and búyàoBié or búyào before a verb tells someone not to do something; with le at the end it tells them to stop. 1Yes-no questions with maAdd ma to the end of a statement and it becomes a question; answer by repeating the verb. 1Question wordsA question word stands where the answer will stand, and the sentence keeps its statement order. 2How big, how far: duō before an adjectiveDuō before an adjective asks how much of it there is: duō dà, duō gāo, duō yuǎn, duō cháng shíjiān. 2A-not-A questionsSay the verb, then bù and the verb again, and you have a question without ma. 1The particle neNe after a noun asks “and what about …?” or “where is …?”; at the end of a statement it marks something still going on. 2Or: háishi and huòzhěHáishi offers a choice in a question; huòzhě joins two possibilities in a statement. 3Oneself and each other: zìjǐ and hùxiāngZìjǐ is “self”: by oneself, oneself, one’s own. Hùxiāng is “each other”, and it stands before the verb, not after it.

Nouns, measure words, comparison

Nouns, numbers and measure words

10 topics

A Chinese noun never changes: 书(shū) is “book” and “books”, and nothing on the noun says which. What English puts on the noun, Chinese puts in front of it — a number, and between the number and the noun a measure word that says what kind of thing is being counted: 三(sān)本(běn)书(shū), three books. The numbers themselves are the most regular part of the language: learn one to ten and four words for the big places, and every other number follows.

1Counting with shí, bǎi, qiān and wànTen digits and four place words build every number up to the hundred millions. 1Two kinds of two: èr and liǎngÈr is the digit you count with; liǎng is the two you have of something. 1Number, measure word, nounA number never stands directly before a noun: a measure word goes between them. 2The everyday measure wordsAbout fifteen measure words cover daily life, and most of them sort nouns by shape or by kind. 1This, that and which: zhè, nà and nǎZhè and nà point, nǎ asks — and before a noun all three want a measure word. 1The suffix men: a plural for peopleMen makes the pronouns plural and can follow a noun for people — and nothing else. 1Asking how many: jǐ and duōshaoJǐ expects a small number and takes a measure word; duōshao expects any number and can do without one. 3Roughly: approximate numbersDuō, jǐ, zuǒyòu, shàngxià and two neighbouring numbers make a number vague, each in its own place. 2Ordinals, fractions, multiplesDì before a number makes it an ordinal; a fraction names the whole first; bèi multiplies. 3Every one: doubled measure wordsA measure word or a one-syllable noun said twice means every one of them, usually with dōu after it.

The particle de and modification

6 topics

In English a description can come before a noun (a red car) or after it (the car I bought, the man in the hat). In Chinese it always comes before, however long it is, and the particle 的(de) stands between the description and the noun: 我(wǒ)的(de)书(shū), 很(hěn)贵(guì)的(de)衣服(yīfu), 我(wǒ)昨天(zuótiān)买(mǎi)的(de)书(shū). Learn where 的(de) goes and where it is left out, and even the longest Chinese noun phrases become readable.

1Possession with de: wǒ de shūOwner, de, thing: de works like the English 's, and drops out between a pronoun and family or a group. 2Describing a noun: adjective, de, nounAn adjective with a word like hěn in front of it takes de before the noun; a bare one-syllable adjective usually joins the noun directly. 3Nice and clean: doubled adjectivesAn adjective said twice — hónghóng de, gāngānjìngjìng de — paints a vivid picture; it already contains its degree, so hěn and bù cannot stand before it. 3Relative clauses with deA whole clause can describe a noun: it stands before the noun, ends in de, and needs no who, which or that. 2De without a noun: mine, the red oneWhen the noun is clear or general, it can be left out, and the phrase with de stands for it. 3Three written forms of deOne neutral-tone de is written three ways: before a noun, before a verb, and after a verb.

Comparison

8 topics

Chinese adjectives never change their form — there is no “-er” and no “-est” — so a comparison is built from words placed around the adjective. The workhorse is 比(bǐ): 我(wǒ)比(bǐ)他(tā)高(gāo), literally “I, compared with him, tall”. Around it stand the patterns for “not as … as”, “the same as”, “more and more” and “most”, and one rule runs through almost all of them: the 很(hěn) that links an adjective in a plain sentence disappears as soon as something else says how much.

2Comparing with bǐA, then bǐ, then B, then the adjective — and no hěn in front of it. 3How much more: bǐ with amountsThe size of a difference comes after the adjective: a little, much, or an exact amount. 2Not as … as: méiyǒu … nàmeA méiyǒu B (nàme) and an adjective says that A does not come up to B. 2The same and different: gēn … yíyàngA gēn B yíyàng says that A and B are the same; an adjective after it says in what way. 3Like and as if: xiàng … yíyàng and hǎoxiàngXiàng is “to be like”: A xiàng B yíyàng makes a comparison or a simile; hǎoxiàng says “it seems”, “as if”. 2More and most: gèng and zuìGèng before an adjective means “more” or “even more”; zuì means “most”. 3More and more: yuèláiyuè and yuè … yuèYuèláiyuè describes a change that keeps growing; yuè … yuè ties one change to another. 4Not as good as: bùrúA bùrú B means that A is not as good as B — and bùrú before an action suggests a better plan.

Verbs: time, aspect, modals

Time and place

9 topics

English usually says what happens first and adds when and where at the end. Chinese does it the other way round: time first, then place, then the action — 我(wǒ)明天(míngtiān)在(zài)家(jiā)休息(xiūxi), “I am resting at home tomorrow”. Only one kind of time phrase breaks the rule: a length of time, which follows the verb. This area covers the time words, the small words of place — 在(zài), 里(lǐ), 上(shàng), 从(cóng), 到(dào), 离(lí), 往(wǎng) — and the clauses that work like time words.

1Time words before the verbWhen something happens goes before the verb, and a date or a clock time runs from the biggest unit to the smallest. 1Zài: where it is, where it happensZài says where something is, and before another verb it says where the action happens. 1On, in, under: place wordsChinese says “the table on” rather than “on the table”: the word for the position follows the noun. 2From … to … with cóng and dàoCóng marks where or when something starts, dào where or when it ends, and the frame goes before the verb. 2How far from: líLí measures the gap between two places: A lí B, then near, far or a distance. 2Zài, yǒu and shì for where things areA known thing + zài + place; a place + yǒu + something new; a place + shì + what fills it. 3Towards: wǎng, xiàng and cháoWǎng points a movement somewhere, xiàng can also aim at a person, and cháo says which way something faces. 2Duration after the verbA point in time goes before the verb, a length of time after it. 2When, before, after: de shíhouA whole clause becomes a time phrase with de shíhou, yǐqián or yǐhòu after it, and it goes before the main clause.

Aspect: le, guo, zhe and zai

10 topics

English cannot use a verb without saying when: “I eat”, “I ate”, “I will eat”. A Chinese verb never changes, and the time is said by time words such as 昨天(zuótiān) or 明天(míngtiān). What the grammar marks instead is how an action is seen: as a finished whole (了(le)), as something that has happened at least once (过(guo)), as going on (在(zài)), or as a state that lasts (着(zhe)). This is called aspect, and the single most useful thing to know about it is that 了(le) is not a past tense.

2Verb + le: completed actionLe straight after a verb presents an action as finished and complete — most often with a number or an amount after it. 2Sentence-final le: a changeLe at the very end of a sentence says that a situation is new: it has changed, or it is now the case. 3Double le, and leaving le outVerb-le plus sentence-le says that something has gone on up to now — and many past sentences need no le at all. 2Méi and méiyǒu: it did not happenTo say that something did not happen, put méi or méiyǒu before the verb — and drop le. 2Guo: having done something beforeGuo after a verb says that something has happened at least once, at some point in the past. 2Zài and zhèngzài: in progressZài or zhèngzài before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that an action is going on. 3Zhe: a lasting stateZhe after a verb describes the state an action leaves behind — and, before a second verb, the way something is done. 2About to happen: kuài … leYào, kuài or jiù yào before the verb and le at the end say that something is just about to happen. 2Shì … de: stressing when or howWhen both speakers know that something happened, shì … de puts the spotlight on a detail: when, where, how, or with whom. 2Hái méi … ne: not yetHái méi before the verb, often with ne at the end, says that something has not happened yet but is expected to.

Modal verbs

7 topics

English “can” does three jobs, and Chinese gives each its own word: 会(huì) for a skill you have learned, 能(néng) for being able, 可以(kěyǐ) for being allowed. Modal verbs stand before the main verb, never change their form, take 不(bù) for the negative and can be the short answer to a question. The trickiest part for English speakers is the negatives: “don’t want to” is not 不要(búyào), and “don’t have to” is not the negative of “have to”.

1Would like and want: xiǎng and yàoXiǎng is a gentle wish, yào a firm intention or a need — and “don’t want to” is bù xiǎng. 1Can (learned skill): huìHuì is “can” for a skill you have learned — and also “will” for what is likely to happen. 2Néng and kěyǐ: able to and allowed toNéng is being able in the circumstances, kěyǐ is being allowed — and when you ask permission, both will do. 2Should: yīnggāiYīnggāi gives advice or says what is right — and also what you would expect to be the case. 3Must and need not: děi, bìxū and búyòngDěi is the everyday “have to”, bìxū the firm “must” of rules — and the negative of both is búyòng. 2Maybe and probably: kěnéngKěnéng says something may be so — before the verb, or at the start of the sentence for the whole statement. 3Willing, daring: yuànyì, gǎn, kěnYuànyì is being willing, gǎn having the nerve, and kěn agreeing to do what you were asked.

Complements after the verb

9 topics

English often needs two verbs, or a verb and a particle, where Chinese uses one verb and a word attached straight after it: “look” and “see” are 看(kàn) and 看见(kànjiàn), “run out” is 跑(pǎo)出去(chuqu). This slot after the verb — the complement — says what the action achieved, which way it went, how well it was done, whether it can be done at all, and how long or how often it happened. It has less of an equivalent in English than any other part of Chinese grammar, and it is where a sentence that looks complete to an English speaker sounds unfinished to a Chinese one. A one-syllable verb and a one-syllable complement are written as one word in the pinyin here (kànwán, nálai), the way pinyin spelling joins them; longer ones stand apart.

2Result complementsA second word straight after the verb says what the action achieved: finished, understood, found, done wrong. 2Degree complement with deVerb, then de, then an adjective: how an action is done or how well. 2Direction: lái and qù after verbsLái after a verb points towards the speaker, qù points away. 3Compound direction complementsA verb of movement, a direction word and lái or qù: zǒu jìnlai, ná chūlai, pǎo huíqu. 4Figurative direction complementsQǐlai, xiàqu, chūlai and xiàlai also mean starting, carrying on, bringing to light and settling. 3Can or cannot: potential complementsDe or bu between a verb and its complement says whether the result is possible: kàndedǒng, kànbudǒng. 3Duration with an objectA length of time goes after the verb; with an object as well, say the verb twice or put the time before the object. 2How often: cì, biàn, tàng and yíxiàA number with cì, biàn or tàng after the verb says how many times; yíxià makes an action short and casual. 3Extremely: jíle, sǐle, huàileAfter an adjective, jíle, de hěn, sǐle or huàile push it to an extreme.

Sentence patterns and linking

Sentence patterns

11 topics

A plain Chinese sentence runs subject, verb, object, much as English does. This area is about the patterns that move the parts around to say something more: 把(bǎ) brings the object forward to say what became of it, 被(bèi) turns the sentence round to say what happened to somebody, 连(lián) … 都(dōu) picks out the most extreme case, and a place at the head of a sentence announces that something new is there. None of them has an ending or a change of verb form; all of the work is done by order and by a few small words.

3The bǎ sentenceBǎ brings a definite object in front of the verb to say what was done to it, and the verb cannot stand bare at the end. 3The passive with bèiBèi puts the one who undergoes an action first and the doer after bèi, and it usually reports something unwelcome. 4Passives with ràng, jiào and gěiIn speech ràng and jiào often stand where bèi would, gěi can stand before the verb, and many passives need no marker at all. 3Two verbs in a rowOne subject, two verb phrases one after the other: the first says where or how, the second says what for. 3Make, let, ask: ràng, jiào, qǐngThe person after ràng, jiào or qǐng is the object of the first verb and the subject of the second. 2Verbs with two objectsWith verbs like gěi, sòng, jiāo, wèn and gàosu, the person comes first and the thing second, both straight after the verb. 2Have a look: doubled verbsA verb said twice — kànkan, kàn yi kàn, xiūxi xiūxi — does the action briefly or casually, and softens a request. 3Verbs that split: jiàn le miàn, bāng tā de mángJiànmiàn, bāngmáng, shuìjiào and their relatives are a verb with its own object inside: they take no second object, and other words go between the two halves. 3Even: lián … dōu and lián … yěLián picks out the most extreme case, and dōu or yě after it says that the statement holds even there. 4Appearing, disappearing and existingPlace first, then the verb, then the new arrival: the order Chinese uses for something that is somewhere, turns up or goes away. 4Emphasis: shì and question wordsA stressed shì insists that something really is so, and a question word before dōu or yě means everybody, everything or anywhere.

Adverbs: also, again, already, only

13 topics

A Chinese verb never changes, so a great deal of what English says with endings, auxiliaries and intonation is said by a handful of adverbs placed directly before the verb. 也(yě) and 都(dōu) add and sum up, 又(yòu) and 再(zài) divide “again” into past and future, and 就(jiù) and 才(cái) tell the listener whether something happened sooner or later than expected. Higher up, adverbs such as 其实(qíshí) and 偏偏(piānpiān) carry the speaker’s attitude. Most of them share one rule that English does not have: they stand after the subject and before the verb, and cannot drift to the end of the sentence.

1Also and all: yě and dōuYě adds “too”, dōu sums up “all” — and both stand between the subject and the verb. 2Three kinds of again: hái, zài and yòuYòu is again for what has happened, zài is again for what has not, and hái is still or as well. 3Jiù and cái: earlier or laterJiù says it happened earlier or more easily than expected; cái says it happened later or with more trouble. 2Already and once: yǐjīng and céngjīngYǐjīng with le says something is done by now; céngjīng with guo says it happened once and is over. 2Only: zhǐ and jiùZhǐ limits what follows it and stands before the verb; to put “only” in front of a person, say zhǐyǒu. 2How often: from always to neverChángcháng, jīngcháng, zǒngshì, yìzhí, yǒushíhou and cónglái bù or méi — all before the verb. 2A bit: yǒudiǎnr or yìdiǎnrYǒudiǎnr before an adjective says “a bit too”, usually as a complaint; yìdiǎnr after it says “a bit more”, in comparisons and requests. 3Just now: gāng and gāngcáiGāng is an adverb glued to the verb; gāngcái is a time word for a few minutes ago. 3Almost: chàdiǎnrChàdiǎnr before a verb says something nearly happened and did not; with méi, what happens depends on whether the event was wanted. 4Finally, on earth: zhōngyú, dàodǐZhōngyú is relief at the end of a wait; dàodǐ and jiūjìng press for the real answer. 4Not, as it happens: bìng bù and bìng méiyǒuBìng before bù or méiyǒu makes a negative push back against what someone assumed: not, in fact; not at all as you think. 4Originally and actually: běnlái, qíshíBěnlái recalls a plan that changed, yuánlái announces a discovery, and qíshí corrects an impression. 5Adverbs of attitude: jiǎnzhí, bìjìngFive adverbs that add no facts but tell the listener how to take them.

Linking clauses

17 topics

English links two clauses with a single word: “because”, “although”, “if”. Chinese usually marks both halves — one word opens the first clause and a second one, often a small adverb such as 就(jiù), 也(yě) or 才(cái), answers it in the second: 虽然(suīrán)很(hěn)贵(guì)，但是(dànshì)很(hěn)好(hǎo), “although it is expensive, (but) it is good”. The second word is not decoration: it tells the listener how the two halves relate, and choosing it is most of the grammar in this area. Watch where each word stands — conjunctions open their clause, but adverbs such as 就(jiù) and 也(yě) always follow the subject.

2Because and so: yīnwèi … suǒyǐThe reason comes first with yīnwèi and the result second with suǒyǐ — and Chinese is happy to use both words at once. 2Although: suīrán … dànshìSuīrán admits something and dànshì or kěshì sets the contrast against it — Chinese says both words where English says only one. 2If: rúguǒ … jiùThe condition comes first with rúguǒ or yàoshi, and the consequence follows with jiù after its subject. 3As soon as: yī … jiùYī before the first verb and jiù before the second: the second thing follows straight on from the first. 3Not only … but also: búdàn … érqiěBúdàn sets up a first point and érqiě adds a second, usually a stronger one. 3As long as, only if: zhǐyào, zhǐyǒuZhǐyào … jiù names a condition that is enough; zhǐyǒu … cái names the one condition without which nothing happens. 3Except and besides: chúle … yǐwàiChúle sets something aside; the adverb that follows decides whether it is left out or added in. 2First, then: xiān … ránhòuXiān marks the first step; ránhòu, zài, jiēzhe and yǐhòu bring in the next one. 4Even if: jíshǐ … yěJíshǐ supposes something, even something unlikely, and yě says that the result stands all the same. 4No matter: wúlùn and bùguǎn … dōuWúlùn or bùguǎn opens a range of possibilities, and dōu or yě says the result is the same for all of them. 4Since, given that: jìrán … jiùJìrán takes something both speakers already accept, and jiù draws the conclusion from it. 4Otherwise: fǒuzé, bùrán, yàobùránFirst what should happen, then fǒuzé or bùrán and what will follow if it does not. 4Either … or: búshì … jiùshìBúshì A, jiùshì B says it is certainly one or the other, or that it is always one or the other; búshì A, érshì B corrects A to B. 3Two at once: yìbiān … yìbiānYìbiān … yìbiān puts two actions side by side; yòu … yòu puts two qualities side by side. 4Moreover: érqiě, bìngqiě, shènzhìÉrqiě adds a point, bìngqiě adds a step in a more formal register, and shènzhì goes as far as the surprising extreme. 5Even though: jǐnguǎn and nǎpàJǐnguǎn admits a fact more firmly than suīrán; nǎpà supposes the worst or smallest case and says it changes nothing. 5Rather than: yǔqí … bùrúYǔqí … bùrú weighs two options and picks the second; nìngkě … yě bù accepts a cost rather than do something.

Politeness and set expressions

Sentence-final particles

5 topics

English shows its attitude with the voice and with little tags — “let’s”, “isn’t it?”, “come on”, “that’s all”. Chinese cannot bend the pitch of a word freely, because pitch is already the tone of the word. The job goes to particles at the end of the sentence: 吧(ba) suggests or guesses, 啊(a) adds warmth, 呢(ne) asks “and what about” or points something out, 嘛(ma) insists that something is obvious. They are short, unstressed and in the neutral tone, and they decide whether the same words sound like a request or an order.

2Ba: suggestions and softer commandsBa at the end of a sentence turns it into a suggestion, a guess that asks to be confirmed, or a gentler request. 2A and its sound changes: ya, wa, naA at the end of a sentence adds warmth, surprise or urgency, and it takes on the sound of the word before it. 3Ne in depthNe asks “and what about …?”, keeps a situation going, makes a question thoughtful, and quietly points something out. 4Ma and bei: it is obviousA second ma, written with a different character, says “it is obvious”; bei adds “so just do that, simple as that”. 5Only, that is all: éryǐ, bàleÉryǐ and bàle close a sentence with “only, nothing more”; jiùshì le closes it with “and that settles it”.

Politeness and social language

4 topics

Chinese has no special verb forms for politeness: the verb in 您(nín)去(qù) is the same as in 你(nǐ)去(qù). Politeness lives in a handful of words and in habits — 您(nín) for “you”, a title after the family name, 请(qǐng) and a softened question for a request, a compliment turned aside rather than accepted, and in formal writing a small set of words that raise the other side and lower your own. Learning these is less about grammar than about knowing which word a situation expects.

1Polite address: nín and titlesNín is the polite “you”, and people are addressed by family name plus title, in that order. 2Asking politelyQǐng, máfan nǐ and néngbunéng make a request polite; yíxià and a doubled verb make it light. 3Modesty and complimentsA compliment is turned aside rather than simply accepted, and what is your own is played down. 5Formal letters and business ChineseA small set of words — guì, běn, bì, guānglín, fǔshàng, gōngxǐ — raises the other side and lowers your own in formal speech and writing.

Expressions (level 4)

12 topics

From level 4 on, Chinese sentences start to carry frames: a few words that open the sentence and say from which point of view, on what basis, under which conditions or for what purpose the rest is true. English does the same job with phrases such as “as far as I am concerned” or “according to the forecast”, but English tends to add them at the end, while Chinese puts them first: 对(duì)我(wǒ)来说(láishuō)，这(zhè)个(ge)太(tài)难(nán)了(le). Most of these frames are a little more formal than everyday speech, and they are what makes a learner’s Chinese sound grown-up.

4From the view of: duì … lái shuōDuì, a person or group, then lái shuō — the frame that says whose point of view a judgement holds for. 4About and regarding: guānyú and duìyúGuānyú names the subject matter something is about; duìyú names what an attitude or a treatment is aimed at. 3In order to: wèileWèile puts the purpose first: in order to do this, somebody does that. 4By means of and through: tōngguòTōngguò names the means, the method or the go-between through which something is done — and as a verb it means to pass. 4As things change: suízheSuízhe ties one change to another: as the first develops, the second follows. 4According to: gēnjù and ànzhàoGēnjù names the basis a conclusion is drawn from; ànzhào names the rule or plan an action follows. 4Owing to: yóuyúYóuyú gives a cause in a measured, written tone — at the front of the sentence, often with yīncǐ after it. 4Under, in, in terms of: zài … xiàZài, a noun and xià, zhōng or shàng set the condition, the process or the area a statement holds in. 5Taking X as Y: yǐ X wéi YYǐ X wéi Y says that X is taken as, treated as or made into Y — a compact frame from written Chinese. 4Worth it, hard to, no choice butZhíde says an action is worth it, nányǐ says it can hardly be done, bùdébù says there was no way round it. 4It seems, I hear: kànqǐlai, tīngshuōFour ways to say that something seems so — from how it looks, from what you conclude, or from what you have heard. 4However much: zěnme yě, zài … yěZěnme yě or zěnme dōu before a negative says that no way works; zài … yě says that even more would not help.

Expressions (level 5)

10 topics

At level 5 the grammar is mostly in place, and what is left is the language of argument: words that raise the stakes (甚至(shènzhì), 何况(hékuàng)), soften a claim (未必(wèibì)), turn an expectation upside down (反而(fǎn'ér), 竟然(jìngrán)), plan for the worst (万一(wànyī), 免得(miǎnde)), ask a question that already holds its answer (难道(nándào)) and sum it all up (总之(zǒngzhī)). Most of them are short, and each of them changes how the whole sentence is heard. The area closes with the four-character expressions that educated Chinese is full of.

5Even and let alone: shènzhì and hékuàngShènzhì climbs to the surprising case; hékuàng points to the case that follows all the more. 5Not necessarily: wèibì, bù yídìngThree ways to doubt that something must be so — without saying that it is not. 5As for: zhìyúZhìyú opens a clause about the next point; bú zhìyú says it will not come to that. 5On the contrary: fǎn'ér and dàoFǎn'ér turns the expected result upside down; dào does the same, more softly, in speech. 5Surprise, as expected: jìngrán, guǒránJìngrán says nobody expected it; guǒrán says somebody did, and was right. 5In case and once: wànyī and yídànWànyī prepares for what you hope will not happen; yídàn names the point after which things change. 5So as not to: miǎnde, yǐmiǎnThree words that open a second clause and name the trouble the first clause is meant to avoid. 5Rhetorical questions: nándàoNándào asks a question that already holds its answer — the opposite of what it says. 5In short: zǒngzhī, huànjùhuàshuōZǒngzhī sums up what came before; huànjùhuàshuō says it again in other words. 5Four-character idioms: chéngyǔHow the four-syllable idioms are built, where they go in a sentence, and why they never take hěn.

Written Chinese

5 topics

Written Chinese keeps a layer of words from the classical language: 之(zhī), 其(qí), 于(yú), 以(yǐ), 将(jiāng), 已(yǐ), 所(suǒ). They are everywhere on signs, in announcements, in the news and in anything written with care, and one character often does the work of a two-character spoken word. The grammar underneath is the same as in speech; what changes is the vocabulary, and recognising these words matters long before a learner needs to use them.

5Zhī and qí in modern writingZhī is the written de and lives on in fixed forms like zhīyī and zhījiān; qí means its, their or of them. 5Written yú, yǐ and érYú marks place, time, comparison and target in writing; yǐ means with, by or so that; ér links two parts and often contrasts them. 5Written adverbs: jiāng, yǐ, wèiFive single characters that written Chinese uses for will, already, not yet and all. 5Suǒ and the passive wéi … suǒSuǒ before a verb points at the thing that is done; wéi … suǒ … is the passive of written prose. 5Spoken and written Chinese side by sideMany spoken words have a written partner — yóuyú for yīnwèi, rán'ér for dànshì, yīncǐ for suǒyǐ, ruò for rúguǒ — and a text keeps to one of the two.